Reference Guide
Glossary
Key terms and definitions for understanding Óc Eo and Funan
Archaeological Terms
Stele (pl. stelae)
An upright stone slab or pillar bearing an inscription or sculptural design. The K5 inscription from Go Thap is carved on a stele. Often used to commemorate important events, mark territory, or honor deities.
Intaglio
A gem or other stone with an incised design, the opposite of a cameo. Indian intaglios found at Óc Eo indicate trade connections with the subcontinent.
Jar burial
A burial practice where the deceased is placed in a large ceramic jar. The Cay Tram Mound Jar Tomb is one of Vietnam's National Treasures and represents this Funanese mortuary tradition.
Religious & Cultural Terms
Linga (also Lingam)
An abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva, typically a cylindrical stone. Lingas were central to Shaiva worship in Funan and are among the most common religious artifacts from Óc Eo.
Yoni
A pedestal or base representing the goddess Shakti, typically with a spout for drainage. Lingas are usually mounted on yonis, together symbolizing cosmic creation. Several linga-yoni sets from Óc Eo are National Treasures.
Mukhalinga
A linga with one or more faces of Shiva carved on it (mukha = face). The Mukhalinga Ba The is a National Treasure with a single face, representing Shiva's presence in a more personified form.
Nandin (Nandi)
The sacred bull who serves as Shiva's vehicle (vahana). The Giong Cat Nandin Ring depicts this deity and indicates the importance of Shaiva worship in Funan.
Brahma
The Hindu creator god, typically depicted with four heads. The Giong Xoai Brahma Statue from Óc Eo is evidence of Brahmanical worship alongside Buddhism in Funan.
Hamsa
A sacred goose or swan in Indian tradition, associated with Brahma and spiritual purity. Funan silver coins feature the hamsa bird (or Vietnamese crested argus), making them distinctly local currency.
Scripts & Languages
Sanskrit
The classical language of ancient India, used for religious texts and royal inscriptions. Funanese inscriptions like K5 are in Sanskrit, demonstrating Indian cultural influence. Sanskrit was the lingua franca of Indianized Southeast Asian courts.
Pallava Grantha Script
A script derived from the Brahmi family, developed in the Pallava dynasty of South India (3rd-9th century CE). Used to write Sanskrit in early Southeast Asian inscriptions including those at Óc Eo. Ancestor of many modern Southeast Asian scripts.
Measurement & Geography
Li (里)
A traditional Chinese unit of distance, approximately 500 meters (varied by period). Chinese sources describe Funan as "3,000 li" from a frontier post, helping scholars estimate the kingdom's location.
Magnus Sinus
Latin for "Great Gulf," Ptolemy's name for what appears to be the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea. Kattigara was located on this body of water at the far eastern edge of the known world.
Chryse (Χρυσῆ)
Greek for "Golden Land" or "Golden Peninsula," referring to the Malay Peninsula or broader Southeast Asia. Mentioned in the Periplus Maris Erythraei and by Ptolemy as a region rich in gold.
Kattigara (Κατιγάρα)
A port city mentioned by Ptolemy at the far eastern end of the known world. Ptolemy recorded Kattigara at approximately 177° longitude east from the Fortunate Isles, positioned on the Magnus Sinus (Great Gulf) beyond the Golden Peninsula. Original manuscripts record its latitude as 8½° south of the equator; 20th-century scholarship determined this was a scribal error for 8½° north, placing it within the Mekong Delta region. Óc Eo itself lies at approximately 10°N. German classicist Albrecht Dihle concluded from Alexander the merchant's sailing description that "Kattigara can actually be located only in the Mekong delta." The name likely derives from Sanskrit कीर्ति-नगर (Kīrti-nagara, "Renowned City") or कोटि-नगर (Koṭi-nagara, "Strong City"). The presence of Roman artifacts at Óc Eo supports this identification.
Historical Terms
Funan (扶南)
Chinese transcription of the name of the kingdom centered in the Mekong Delta (c. 1st-7th century CE). The original Khmer name may have been *Bnam or *Phnom (mountain), suggesting a mountain cult. Funan was the dominant maritime power of early Southeast Asia.
Kaundinya
A Brahmin lineage name appearing in both Chinese and Sanskrit sources. According to legend, an Indian Brahmin named Kaundinya founded the dynasty of Funan by marrying a local naga (serpent) princess named Soma.
Indianization
The process by which Indian religious, political, and cultural concepts spread to Southeast Asia. This was not colonization but rather selective adoption by local elites of Sanskrit language, Hindu-Buddhist religion, and Indian concepts of kingship.
Chenla
The kingdom that succeeded Funan in the 7th century CE, eventually becoming the Khmer Empire. Chinese sources describe Chenla as a former vassal state that conquered Funan from the north.